Compositions and methods for the production of l-homoalanine

ABSTRACT

Healthcare costs are a significant worldwide, with many patients being denied medications because of their high prices. One approach to addressing this problem involves the biosynthesis of chiral drug intermediates, an environmentally friendly solution that can be used to generate pharmaceuticals at much lower costs than conventional techniques. In this context, embodiments of the invention comprise methods and materials designed to allow microorganisms to biosynthesize the nonnatural amino acid L-homoalanine. As is known in the art, L-homoalanine is a chiral precursor of a variety of pharmaceutically valuable compounds including the anticonvulsant medications levetiracetam (sold under the trade name Keppra®) and brivaracetam, as well as ethambutol, a bacteriostatic antimycobacterial drug used to treat tuberculosis. Consequently, embodiments of the invention can be used in low cost, environmentally friendly processes to generate these and other valuable compounds.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patentapplication No. 61/308,746, filed Feb. 26, 2010, the entire contents ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods and materials for synthesizing compoundssuch as L-homoalanine including procedures using microbial hosts andrecombinant molecules.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The dramatic increase in healthcare costs has become a significantburden to the world, with many patients being denied medications becauseof their high prices. The biosynthesis of chiral drugs and drugintermediates offers an environmentally friendly approach to addressingsuch problems, for example, by providing cost effective methodologiesfor the production of therapeutic agents as well as the intermediatesand/or precursors used to make such agents.

L-homoalanine is a nonnatural amino acid that is a key chiralintermediate for the synthesis of several important drugs (FIG. 1A). Forexample, it can be converted to S-2-aminobutyramide, which is theimmediate precursor of the antiepileptic drugs levetiracetam andbrivaracetam. L-homoalanine can also be converted to S-2-aminobutanol, achemical intermediate in methods for synthesizing the antituberculosiscompound ethambutol. Methods for synthesizing therapeutic compounds suchas levetiracetam and ethambutol must overcome a number of technicalchallenges. For example, the optical purity of these drugs is criticalfor therapeutic safety and efficacy. The R-enantiomer of levetiracetamhas no antiepileptic activity (see, e.g. Shorvon et al., (2002) Journalof Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 72(4):426-429) and (R,R)-form of ethambutol can cause blindness (see, e.g. Breuer M, et al.(2004) Angewandte Chemie International Edition 43(7):788-824).

Even though ethambutol and levetiracetam are now generic drugs, in manycountries the cost of just one month's supply exceeds the entire annualper capita health expenditure (see, e.g. Moore-Gillon J (2001) Ann N YAcad Sci 953:233-240). The prohibitive drug price has created globalhealthcare problems. For example, while epilepsy affects over 50 millionpeople worldwide, most of the patients cannot afford the levetiracetamtreatment, and must use cheaper but much less effective alternativessuch as phenobarbital (see, e.g. Scott et al. (2001) B World HealthOrgan 79:344-351). One approach to reducing drug costs in order to makethem more widely available involves cost-effective approaches toL-homoalanine synthesis (e.g. by reducing the manufacturing cost ofcompounds such as levetiracetam).

Most of the natural L-amino acids can now be produced from glucose bymicrobial fermentation (see, e.g. Ikeda M (2002) Adv Biochem Eng Biot79:1-35). Notably, L-glutamate, L-lysine, and L-threonine are producedmore than 2 million tons annually (see, e.g. Leuchtenberger et al.(2005) Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 69(1):1-8). In contrast to methods formaking natural L-amino acids, methods for the commercial-scalepreparation of nonnatural amino acids are typically complex as well asenvironmentally unfriendly. In one prior art approach, chemicallysynthesized 2-ketoacids are asymmetrically converted to optically purenonnatural amino acids by transaminases or dehydrognenases (see, e.g.Leuchtenberger et al. (2005) Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 69(1):1-8; Tayloret al. (1998) Trends Biotechnol 16(10):412-418). Another approach usesenzymes such as acylases or amidases to resolve racemic mixtures ofnonnatural amino acids (see, e.g. Leuchtenberger et al. (2005) ApplMicrobiol Biotechnol 69(1):1-8).

Due to, for example, their usefulness in a making a variety of valuabletherapeutic compounds, there is a need in the art for methods andmaterials that facilitate the cost effective and environmentallyfriendly biosynthesis of nonnatural amino acids such as L-homoalanine.Unlike natural amino acids however, the total biosynthesis of nonnaturalamino acids from simple sugars involves significant technicalchallenges. For example, in one environmentally friendly and costeffective approach, metabolic pathways in an organism are altered inorder to expand the biosynthetic capabilities of that organism (see,e.g. Zhang et al. (2008) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(52):20653-20658). Insuch approaches, the altered metabolic pathways then facilitate ordirect the production of a target compound such as a nonnatural aminoacid (see, e.g. Causey et al. (2003) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA100(3):825-832). Unfortunately, however, the results of any manipulationdesigned to alter an organism's metabolic pathways can be unpredictableand such efforts typically require extensive protein evolution (see,e.g. Arnold F H (2001) Nature 409 (6817):253-257).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the invention disclosed herein provide methods andmaterials for biosynthesizing the nonnatural amino acid L-homoalanine.L-homoalanine is a chiral precursor of a variety of pharmaceuticallyvaluable compounds including the anticonvulsant medicationslevetiracetam and brivaracetam, as well as ethambutol, a bacteriostaticantimycobacterial drug used to treat tuberculosis. Embodiments of theinvention include compositions of matter comprising modifiedpolypeptides and/or microorganisms and/or L-homoalanine.

As illustrated in the Examples below, a selection strategy was used togenerate recombinant glutamate dehydrogenase (“GDH”) polypeptides. Theserecombinant polypeptides exhibit properties that facilitate their use inthe production of L-homoalanine, for example a specificity constantk_(cat)/K_(m) towards 2-ketobutyrate is 50-fold higher than thespecificity constant towards 2-ketoglutarate, the natural substrate. Therecombinant glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptides disclosed herein can beused in methods for the cost effective synthesis of L-homoalanine incommercially significant quantities. In one illustrative embodiment ofthe invention, the expression of a recombinant glutamate dehydrogenasein combination with a Bacillus subtilis threonine dehydratase protein ina threonine-hyperproducing Escherichia coli strain (ATCC98082, ΔrhtA) isshown to produce 5.4 g/L L-homoalanine from 30 g/L glucose (0.18 g/gglucose yield, 26% of the theoretical maximum).

The invention disclosed herein has a number of embodiments. Illustrativeembodiments include glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptides having aspecificity constant k_(cat)/K_(m) for 2-ketobutyrate that is greaterthan their specificity constant for 2-ketoglutarate. A typicalembodiment of the invention is a composition of matter comprising aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity toSEQ ID NO: 1, and further comprising an amino acid substitution mutationat residue position K92 and/or T195 (for example K92V and T195S). Incertain embodiments of the invention, the glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide further comprises at least 2-10 substitution, deletion orinsertion mutations as compared to the wild type glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 1. Optionally for example, the glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide includes at least one amino acid substitutionmutation comprising K92L, K92V, T195S, T195A, V377A or S380C. A relatedembodiment of the invention is an isolated glutamate dehydrogenasepolynucleotide having an at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 2 andencoding a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide that comprises at leastone mutation at amino acid position K92, T195, V377 or S380; and furtherexhibits a specificity for 2-ketobutyrate that is greater than itsspecificity for 2-ketoglutarate.

Embodiments of the invention include compositions comprising a glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide disclosed herein in combination with anorganism such as Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicum. Intypical embodiments, the Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicumorganisms have been transformed with an expression vector encoding aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide disclosed herein. In certainembodiments of the invention, the organism is a strain of Escherichiacoli that produces relatively high levels of threonine, for example onethat can produce at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/L threonine from 30g/L glucose in a nutrient media. In some embodiments of the inventionthe organism is selected to have a mutation in one or more genes in ametabolic pathway, for example a strain of Escherichia coli thatcomprises a mutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5 that resultsin a decreased threonine export activity as compared to wild type rhtApolypeptide. In some embodiments of the invention, the organism furtheroverexpresses one or more polypeptides in combination with the glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptides disclosed herein. In one illustrativeembodiment, the organism has been transformed with an expression vectorencoding a GDH as disclosed herein as well an expression vector encodinga threonine dehydratase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity toSEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7. In other embodiments of the invention, thegenes for multiple polypeptides used to alter an organism metabolicpathways are encoded on a single expression vector. Optionally, theorganism can synthesize L-homoalanine at a concentration of at least 1,2, 3, 4 or 5 g/L in a nutrient media.

Embodiments of the invention include methods for making L-homoalanine.One illustrative embodiment of the invention is a method for makingL-homoalanine comprising: placing an Escherichia coli or Corynebacteriumglutamicum organism into a nutrient medium, wherein the organismcomprises a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95%identity to SEQ ID NO: 1 and an amino acid substitution mutation atresidue position K92 or T195. This organism is then cultured in anutrient medium under conditions that allows it to biosynthesizeL-homoalanine. Typically the glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide used insuch methods further comprises at least 2-10 substitution, deletion orinsertion mutations as compared to the wild type glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments of the invention,the organism is Escherichia coli comprising a mutation in a rhtApolypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5 that results in a decreased threonine exportactivity as compared to wild type rhtA polypeptide. In certainembodiments of the invention, the organism is transformed with anexpression vector encoding a threonine dehydratase polypeptide having anat least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7.

In typical embodiments of the invention, the organism is grown under atleast one of the following conditions: at a temperature between 30-40°C.; for a time period between at least 4 to at least 48 hours; at a pHbetween 6-8; and/or in a nutrient media comprising, for example, M9, LB,F1 or TB media. In one illustrative embodiment, the nutrient mediumcomprises M9 medium; and the organism is a strain of Escherichia coliselected for its ability to make at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/Lthreonine from 30 g/L glucose in the M9 medium. Typically in thesemethods, the organism can make L-homoalanine at a concentration of atleast 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 g/L in a nutrient medium.

Certain embodiments of the methods for making L-homoalanine includefurther steps to purify and/or chemically modify a L-homoalaninecomposition disclosed herein. For example, some embodiments of theinvention include at least one purification step comprising lysis ofcells of an isolated organism used to make L-homoalanine (e.g. organismwithin a nutrient media). Other embodiments of the invention can alsoinclude at least one purification step comprising centrifugation ofcells or cell lysates of an isolated organism used to makeL-homoalanine. Other embodiments can include at least one purificationstep comprising precipitation of one or more compounds present in amedium used to make L-homoalanine (e.g. L-homoalanine itself).Embodiments can include at least one purification step comprising thefiltration and/or the concentration of one or more compounds present ina nutrient media (e.g. L-homoalanine). Embodiments can include at leastone purification step comprising a chromatographic separation of one ormore compounds present in a nutrient media (e.g. L-homoalanine). Relatedembodiments of the invention include further methodological steps inwhich a L-homoalanine composition made according to an embodiment of theinvention is chemically modified by, for example, performing an chemicalreaction such as an amidation or reduction reaction on the L-homoalaninein order to generate further compounds such as S-2-aminobutyramide,S-2-aminobutanol, levetiracetam, brivaracetam or ethambutol.

Embodiments of the invention also include articles of manufacture and/orkits designed to facilitate the methods of the invention. Typically suchkits include instructions for using the elements therein according tothe methods of the present invention. Such kits can comprise a carriermeans being compartmentalized to receive in close confinement one ormore container means such as vials, tubes, and the like, each of thecontainer means comprising one of the separate elements to be used inthe method. One of the containers can comprise a vial, for example,containing an expression vector encoding a polypeptide disclosed herein,for example one encoding a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having analtered substrate specificity. Optionally the expression vector has beentransformed into an organism such as Escherichia coli or Corynebacteriumglutamicum in order to facilitate their production of L-homoalanine. Oneillustrative embodiment of the invention is a kit for synthesizingL-homoalanine, the kit comprising: an expression vector encoding aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity toSEQ ID NO: 1 and an amino acid substitution mutation at residue positionK92 or T195. Typically the kit includes a container for this expressionvector. Optionally the kit further comprises an expression vectorencoding a threonine dehydratase polypeptide having an at least 95%identity to SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7 and/or a live Escherichia colistrain (e.g. a strain of Escherichia coli overexpresses threonine and/orone that comprises a mutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5resulting in a decreased threonine export activity as compared to wildtype rhtA polypeptide).

Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention willbecome apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detaileddescription. It is to be understood, however, that the detaileddescription and specific examples, while indicating some embodiments ofthe present invention are given by way of illustration and notlimitation. Many changes and modifications within the scope of thepresent invention may be made without departing from the spirit thereof,and the invention includes all such modifications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows illustrative pathways and processes for the synthesis ofL-homoalanine and related compounds. FIG. 1A shows chemical syntheticroutes of antiepileptic and antituberculosis drugs from the chiralintermediate L-homoalanine. FIG. 1B shows a nonnatural metabolic pathwayfor L-homoalanine fermentation. Engineered E. coli can overproduce thenatural amino acid threonine from glucose. Threonine is converted to2-ketobutyrate by threonine dehydratase. Then L-homoalanine issynthesized from 2-ketobutyrate by amination. FIG. 1C shows illustrativesteps for the biosynthesis of the chiral metabolites R-2-hydroxybutyrateand S-2-aminobutyrate from glucose. FIG. 1D shows illustrative steps forthe enatioselective synthesis of Keppra® from R-2-hydroxybutyrate andS-2-aminobutyrate.

FIG. 2 is a graph comparing different amination enzymes on theproduction of L-homoalanine. E. coli cultures were inoculated in M9medium with addition of 10 g/L 2-ketobutyrate and incubated at 37° C.for 24 h. The horizontal axis labels are defined as follows: (A)Wild-type E. coli BW25113; overexpression of (B) transaminase IlvE (C)valine dehydrogenase from Streptomyces avermitilis; (D) valinedehydrogenase from Streptomyces coelicolor, (E) valine dehydrogenasefrom Streptomyces fradiae; (F) evolved glutamate dehydrogenase GDH1; and(G) evolved glutamate dehydrogenase GDH2. The error bars representstandard deviations from three independent experiments.

FIG. 3 illustrates a selection strategy to evolve glutamatedehydrogenase (GDH) for amination of 2-ketobutyrate. FIG. 3A shows thatwild-type GDH assimilates ammonia directly into glutamate. FIG. 3B showsthat knocking out transaminase genes avtA and ilvE from the chromosomemakes wild-type E. coli valine auxotrophic, which can be complemented bya mutant GDH active on aminating 2-ketoisovalerate. FIG. 3C shows that2-ketobutyrate is chemically similar to the valine precursor,2-ketoisovalerate. A mutant GDH active on 2-ketoisovalerate is likely tobe active on 2-ketobutyrate.

FIG. 4 shows a construction of a GDH library for evolution. FIG. 4Aillustrates a binding pocket of Clostridium symbiosum glutamatedehydrogenase (PDB: 1BGV) complexed with its natural substrateglutamate. Residues K89, T193, V377, and S380 are within a radius of 6 Åof the γ-carbon of glutamate. FIG. 4B shows the sequence alignment of C.symbiosum and E. coli GDH. The binding pocket is conserved, and thecorresponding residues of E. coli GDH are K92, T195, V377, and S380.These residues were subjected to site-saturation mutagenesis withrandomized NNK codon. A library size of 2 million members wastransformed into valine auxotrophic E. coli and selected for mutantsgrowing in M9 minimal medium. FIG. 4C is a graph showing the growthcurve of E. coli (ΔavtA, ΔilvE) transformants in minimal medium. −Valmeans absence of valine. +Val means presence of valine. Or cells aretransformed with GDH1 (K92L, T195A, V377A, and S380C mutations) or GDH2(K92V and T195S mutations) mutant. Cells did not grow up in absence ofvaline in the minimal medium, while GDH mutants could rescue cell growthwithout valine addition.

FIG. 5 shows graphs illustrating the production of L-homoalanine withdifferent combinations of E. coli strains and threonine dehydratases.FIG. 5A is a graph with horizontal axis labels defined as follows: (1)BW25113; (2) BW25113 with overexpression of GDH2; (3) ATCC98082 withoverexpression of TdcB & GDH2; (4) ATCC98082 with overexpression ofIlvA_(EC) & GDH2; (5) ATCC98082 with overexpression of IlvA_(BS) & GDH2;and (6) ATCC98082 (ΔrhtA) with overexpression of IlvA_(BS) and GDH2.FIG. 5B is a graph showing the yield of L-homolalanine biosynthesis fromglucose. The error bars represent standard deviations from threeindependent experiments.

FIG. 6 is a table illustrating the kinetic parameters of wild type andmutant glutamate dehydrogenases.

FIG. 7 is a table illustrating the synthetic oligonucleotides forplasmid construction.

FIG. 8 is a graph illustrating the time courses for the growth of E.coli strains at OD₆₀₀ (optical density at 600 nm). Cells were incubatedin production medium at 33° C. Circles represent wild type strainATCC98082 with pZS_thrO; diamonds represent best production strainATCC98082 (ΔrhtA) with pZS_thrO and pZElac_ilvA_(BS) _(—) GDH. The errorbars represent standard deviations from three independent experiments.

FIG. 9 is a graph illustrating the time courses for the production ofL-homoalanine. Diamonds represent L-homoalanine concentration; circlesrepresent residual glucose concentration. The error bars representstandard deviations from three independent experiments.

FIG. 10 illustrates a stoichiometric matrix A. Matrix A is thestoichiometric matrix and V is the vector of flux in each reactionincluded. The rows of matrix A correspond to each metabolite, and thecolumns of matrix A correspond to each reaction (or lumped reaction)considered.

FIG. 11 illustrates a vector matrix B. Matrix B is a vector consistingof negative glucose input and zeros. The rows of matrix B correspond toeach metabolite.

FIG. 12 is a table illustrating the f vector and the definition offluxes. f vector is defined to fit the formalism,

$\min\limits_{x}{f^{T}x}$

such that A_(eq)x=b_(eq).

FIG. 13 is a table summarizing the theoretical yield for homoalanineproduction from glucose. The table shows the results of the maximumtheoretical yield for various combination of the two variations. It isassumed that: 1) energy production from UQH2 derived from succinatedehydrogenase in TCA cycle was not included; and 2) non-oxidative branchof Pentose Phosphate Pathway was assumed 3R5P→2F6P+GA3P.

FIG. 14 is a graph illustrating the production of L-Homoalanine in afermentor (5 L).

FIG. 15 are schematic flowcharts illustrating embodiments ofpurification processes for L-Homoalanine from fermentation broth.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The techniques and procedures described or referenced herein aregenerally well understood and commonly employed using conventionalmethodology by those skilled in the art. As appropriate, proceduresinvolving the use of commercially available kits and reagents aregenerally carried out in accordance with manufacturer defined protocolsand/or parameters unless otherwise noted. Unless otherwise defined, allterms of art, notations and other scientific terminology used herein areintended to have the meanings commonly understood by those of skill inthe art to which this invention pertains. In some cases, terms withcommonly understood meanings are defined herein for clarity and/or forready reference, and the inclusion of such definitions herein should notnecessarily be construed to represent a substantial difference over whatis generally understood in the art.

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,”and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictatesotherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a polynucleotide” includes aplurality of such polynucleotides and reference to “the microorganism”includes reference to one or more microorganisms, and so forth.

Accordingly, metabolically “engineered” or “modified” microorganisms areproduced via the introduction of genetic material into a host orparental microorganism of choice thereby modifying or altering thecellular physiology and biochemistry of the microorganism. Through theintroduction of genetic material the parental microorganism acquires newproperties, e.g. the ability to produce a new, or greater quantities ofan intracellular metabolite. In an illustrative embodiment, theintroduction of genetic material into a parental microorganism resultsin a new or modified ability to produce an amino acid such asL-homoalanine. The genetic material introduced into the parentalmicroorganism contains gene(s), or parts of genes, coding for one ormore enzymes involved in a biosynthetic pathway for the production of anamino acid (e.g. a modified glutamate dehydrogenase as disclosed herein)and may also include additional elements for the expression and/orregulation of expression of these genes, e.g. promoter sequences.

An engineered or modified microorganism can also include in thealternative or in addition to the introduction of a genetic materialinto a host or parental microorganism, the disruption, deletion orknocking out of a gene or polynucleotide to alter the cellularphysiology and biochemistry of the microorganism. Through the reduction,disruption or knocking out of a gene or polynucleotide the microorganismacquires new or improved properties (e.g., the ability to produced a newor greater quantities of an intracellular metabolite, improve the fluxof a metabolite down a desired pathway, and/or reduce the production ofundesirable by-products).

Microorganisms provided herein are modified to produce metabolites inquantities not available in the parental microorganism. A “metabolite”refers to any substance produced by metabolism or a substance necessaryfor or taking part in a particular metabolic process. A metabolite canbe an organic compound that is a starting material (e.g., glucose), anintermediate (e.g., 2-ketobutyrate) in, or an end product (e.g.,L-homoalanine) of metabolism. Metabolites can be used to construct morecomplex molecules, or they can be broken down into simpler ones.Intermediate metabolites may be synthesized from other metabolites,perhaps used to make more complex substances, or broken down intosimpler compounds, often with the release of chemical energy.

The disclosure identifies specific genes useful in the methods,compositions and organisms of the disclosure; however it will berecognized that absolute identity to such genes is not necessary. Forexample, changes in a particular gene or polynucleotide comprising asequence encoding a polypeptide or enzyme can be performed and screenedfor activity. Typically such changes comprise conservative mutation andsilent mutations. Such modified or mutated polynucleotides andpolypeptides can be screened for expression of a function enzymeactivity using methods known in the art.

A “coding sequence” can be a sequence which “encodes” a particular gene,such as a glutamate dehydrogenase gene, for example. A coding sequenceis a nucleic acid sequence which is transcribed (in the case of DNA) andtranslated (in the case of mRNA) into a polypeptide in vitro or in vivowhen placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences. Theboundaries of the coding sequence are determined by a start codon at the5′ (amino) terminus and a translation stop codon at the 3′ (carboxy)terminus. A transcription termination sequence will usually be located3′ to the coding sequence.

DNA “control sequences” refer collectively to promoter sequences,ribosome binding sites, polyadenylation signals, transcriptiontermination sequences, upstream regulatory domains, enhancers, and thelike, which collectively provide for the transcription and translationof a coding sequence in a host cell. As used herein, the term “promoter”refers to a nucleotide sequence containing elements that initiate thetranscription of an operably linked nucleic acid sequence in a desiredhost microorganism. At a minimum, a promoter contains an RNA polymerasebinding site. It can further contain one or more enhancer elementswhich, by definition, enhance transcription, or one or more regulatoryelements that control the on/off status of the promoter. When E. coli isused as the host microorganism, representative E. coli promotersinclude, but are not limited to, the β-lactamase and lactose promotersystems (see Chang et al., Nature 275:615-624, 1978), the SP6, T3, T5,and T7 RNA polymerase promoters (Studier et al., Meth. Enzymol.185:60-89, 1990), the lambda promoter (Elvin et al., Gene 87:123-126,1990), the trp promoter (Nichols and Yanofsky, Meth. in Enzymology101:155-164, 1983), and the Tac and Trc promoters (Russell et al., Gene20:231-243, 1982). When yeast is used as the host microorganism,exemplary yeast promoters include 3-phosphoglycerate kinase promoter,glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) promoter, galactokinase(GAL1) promoter, galactoepimerase promoter, and alcohol dehydrogenase(ADH) promoter. Promoters suitable for driving gene expression in othertypes of microorganisms are also well known in the art.

“Operably linked” refers to an arrangement of elements wherein thecomponents so described are configured so as to perform their usualfunction. Thus, control sequences operably linked to a coding sequenceare capable of effecting the expression of the coding sequence. Thecontrol sequences need not be contiguous with the coding sequence, solong as they function to direct the expression thereof.

Due to the inherent degeneracy of the genetic code, otherpolynucleotides which encode substantially the same or a functionallyequivalent polypeptide can also be used to clone and express thepolynucleotides encoding such enzymes. A protein has “homology” or is“homologous” to a second protein if the nucleic acid sequence thatencodes the protein has a similar sequence to the nucleic acid sequencethat encodes the second protein. Alternatively, a protein has homologyto a second protein if the two proteins have “similar” amino acidsequences. (Thus, the term “homologous proteins” is defined to mean thatthe two proteins have similar amino acid sequences).

As will be understood by those of skill in the art, it can beadvantageous to modify a coding sequence to enhance its expression in aparticular host. The genetic code is redundant with 64 possible codons,but most organisms typically use a subset of these codons. The codonsthat are utilized most often in a species are called optimal codons, andthose not utilized very often are classified as rare or low-usagecodons. Codons can be substituted to reflect the preferred codon usageof the host, a process sometimes called “codon optimization” or“controlling for species codon bias.”

Optimized coding sequences containing codons preferred by a particularprokaryotic or eukaryotic host (see also, Murray et al. (1989) Nucl.Acids Res. 17:477-508) can be prepared, for example, to increase therate of translation or to produce recombinant RNA transcripts havingdesirable properties, such as a longer half-life, as compared withtranscripts produced from a non-optimized sequence. Translation stopcodons can also be modified to reflect host preference. For example,typical stop codons for S. cerevisiae and mammals are UAA and UGA,respectively. The typical stop codon for monocotyledonous plants is UGA,whereas insects and E. coli commonly use UAA as the stop codon (Dalphinet al. (1996) Nucl. Acids Res. 24: 216-218). Methodology for optimizinga nucleotide sequence for expression in a plant is provided, forexample, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,015,891, and the references cited therein.

Those of skill in the art will recognize that, due to the degeneratenature of the genetic code, a variety of DNA compounds differing intheir nucleotide sequences can be used to encode a given enzyme of thedisclosure. The native DNA sequence encoding the biosynthetic enzymesdescribed above are referenced herein merely to illustrate an embodimentof the disclosure, and the disclosure includes DNA compounds of anysequence that encode the amino acid sequences of the polypeptides andproteins of the enzymes utilized in the methods of the disclosure. Insimilar fashion, a polypeptide can typically tolerate one or more aminoacid substitutions, deletions, and insertions in its amino acid sequencewithout loss or significant loss of a desired activity. The disclosureincludes such polypeptides with different amino acid sequences than thespecific proteins described herein so long as they modified or variantpolypeptides have the enzymatic anabolic or catabolic activity of thereference polypeptide. Furthermore, the amino acid sequences encoded bythe DNA sequences shown herein merely illustrate embodiments of thedisclosure.

As used herein, two proteins (or a region of the proteins) aresubstantially homologous when the amino acid sequences have at leastabout 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identity. Todetermine the percent identity of two amino acid sequences, or of twonucleic acid sequences, the sequences are aligned for optimal comparisonpurposes (e.g., gaps can be introduced in one or both of a first and asecond amino acid or nucleic acid sequence for optimal alignment andnon-homologous sequences can be disregarded for comparison purposes). Inone embodiment, the length of a reference sequence aligned forcomparison purposes is at least 30%, typically at least 40%, moretypically at least 50%, even more typically at least 60%, and even moretypically at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 100% of the length of the referencesequence. The amino acid residues or nucleotides at corresponding aminoacid positions or nucleotide positions are then compared. When aposition in the first sequence is occupied by the same amino acidresidue or nucleotide as the corresponding position in the secondsequence, then the molecules are identical at that position (as usedherein amino acid or nucleic acid “identity” is equivalent to amino acidor nucleic acid “homology”). The percent identity between the twosequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared bythe sequences, taking into account the number of gaps, and the length ofeach gap, which need to be introduced for optimal alignment of the twosequences. Sequence for the genes and polypeptides/enzymes listed hereincan be readily identified using databases available on theWorld-Wide-Web (see, e.g., http:(//)eecoli.kaist.ac.kr/main.html). Inaddition, the amino acid sequence and nucleic acid sequence can bereadily compared for identity using commonly used algorithms in the art.

When “homologous” is used in reference to proteins or peptides, it isrecognized that residue positions that are not identical often differ byconservative amino acid substitutions. A “conservative amino acidsubstitution” is one in which an amino acid residue is substituted byanother amino acid residue having a side chain (R group) with similarchemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity). In general, aconservative amino acid substitution will not substantially change thefunctional properties of a protein. In cases where two or more aminoacid sequences differ from each other by conservative substitutions, thepercent sequence identity or degree of homology may be adjusted upwardsto correct for the conservative nature of the substitution. Means formaking this adjustment are well known to those of skill in the art.

The following six groups each contain amino acids that are conservativesubstitutions for one another: 1) Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) AsparticAcid (D), Glutamic Acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4)Arginine (R), Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine(M), Alanine (A), Valine (V), and 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y),Tryptophan (W).

Sequence homology for polypeptides, which is also referred to as percentsequence identity, is typically measured using sequence analysissoftware. See, e.g., the Sequence Analysis Software Package of theGenetics Computer Group (GCG), University of Wisconsin BiotechnologyCenter, 910 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705. Protein analysissoftware matches similar sequences using measure of homology assigned tovarious substitutions, deletions and other modifications, includingconservative amino acid substitutions. For instance, GCG containsprograms such as “Gap” and “Bestfit” which can be used with defaultparameters to determine sequence homology or sequence identity betweenclosely related polypeptides, such as homologous polypeptides fromdifferent species of organisms or between a wild type protein and amutein thereof. See, e.g., GCG Version 6.1.

A typical algorithm used comparing a molecule sequence to a databasecontaining a large number of sequences from different organisms is thecomputer program BLAST (see, e.g. Zhang et al., (1997) Genome Res.7:649-656; Morgulis et al., (2008) Bioinformatics 15:1757-1764; andCamacho et al., (2008) BMC Bioinformatics 10:421 Ye et al., (2006)Nucleic Acids Res. 34:W6-W9; and Johnson et al., (2008) Nucleic AcidsRes. 36:W5-W9), especially blastp or tblastn (see, e.g. Altschul et al.,Nucleic Acids Res. 1997 Sep. 1; 25(17): 3389-3402). Typical parametersfor BLASTp are: Expectation value: 10 (default); Filter: seg (default);Cost to open a gap: 11 (default); Cost to extend a gap: 1 (default);Max. alignments: 100 (default); Word size: 11 (default); No. ofdescriptions: 100 (default); Penalty Matrix: BLOWSUM62.

When searching a database containing sequences from a large number ofdifferent organisms, it is typical to compare amino acid sequences.Database searching using amino acid sequences can be measured byalgorithms other than blastp known in the art. For instance, polypeptidesequences can be compared using FASTA, a program in GCG Version 6.1.FASTA provides alignments and percent sequence identity of the regionsof the best overlap between the query and search sequences (see, e.g.Pearson et al., Methods Enzymol. 1990; 183:63-98 hereby incorporatedherein by reference). For example, percent sequence identity betweenamino acid sequences can be determined using FASTA with its defaultparameters (a word size of 2 and the PAM250 scoring matrix), as providedin GCG Version 6.1, hereby incorporated herein by reference.

It is understood that a range of microorganisms can be modified toinclude a recombinant metabolic pathway suitable for the production ofL-homoalanine. It is also understood that various microorganisms can actas “sources” for genetic material encoding target enzymes suitable foruse in a recombinant microorganism provided herein. The term“microorganism” includes prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbial speciesfrom the Domains Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya, the latter includingyeast and filamentous fungi, protozoa, algae, or higher Protista. Theterms “microbial cells” and “microbes” are used interchangeably with theterm microorganism. In typical embodiments of the invention, themicroorganism is Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicum.

A “protein” or “polypeptide”, which terms are used interchangeablyherein, comprises one or more chains of chemical building blocks calledamino acids that are linked together by chemical bonds called peptidebonds. An “enzyme” means any substance, composed wholly or largely ofprotein, that catalyzes or promotes, more or less specifically, one ormore chemical or biochemical reactions. The term “enzyme” can also referto a catalytic polynucleotide (e.g., RNA or DNA). A “native” or“wild-type” protein, enzyme, polynucleotide, gene, or cell, means aprotein, enzyme, polynucleotide, gene, or cell that occurs in nature.

It is understood that the polynucleotides described above include“genes” and that the nucleic acid molecules described above include“vectors” or “plasmids.” Accordingly, the term “gene”, also called a“structural gene” refers to a polynucleotide that codes for a particularsequence of amino acids, which comprise all or part of one or moreproteins or enzymes, and may include regulatory (non-transcribed) DNAsequences, such as promoter sequences, which determine for example theconditions under which the gene is expressed. The transcribed region ofthe gene may include untranslated regions, including introns,5′-untranslated region (UTR), and 3′-UTR, as well as the codingsequence. The term “nucleic acid” or “recombinant nucleic acid” refersto polynucleotides such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and, whereappropriate, ribonucleic acid (RNA). The term “expression” with respectto a gene sequence refers to transcription of the gene and, asappropriate, translation of the resulting mRNA transcript to a protein.Thus, as will be clear from the context, expression of a protein resultsfrom transcription and translation of the open reading frame sequence.

The term “operon” refers two or more genes which are transcribed as asingle transcriptional unit from a common promoter. In some embodiments,the genes comprising the operon are contiguous genes. It is understoodthat transcription of an entire operon can be modified (i.e., increased,decreased, or eliminated) by modifying the common promoter.Alternatively, any gene or combination of genes in an operon can bemodified to alter the function or activity of the encoded polypeptide.The modification can result in an increase in the activity of theencoded polypeptide. Further, the modification can impart new activitieson the encoded polypeptide. Exemplary new activities include the use ofalternative substrates and/or the ability to function in alternativeenvironmental conditions.

A “vector” is any means by which a nucleic acid can be propagated and/ortransferred between organisms, cells, or cellular components. Vectorsinclude viruses, bacteriophage, pro-viruses, plasmids, phagemids,transposons, and artificial chromosomes such as YACs (yeast artificialchromosomes), BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes), and PLACs (plantartificial chromosomes), and the like, that are “episomes,” that is,that replicate autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome of a hostcell. A vector can also be a naked RNA polynucleotide, a naked DNApolynucleotide, a polynucleotide composed of both DNA and RNA within thesame strand, a poly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, a peptide-conjugatedDNA or RNA, a liposome-conjugated DNA, or the like, that are notepisomal in nature, or it can be an organism which comprises one or moreof the above polynucleotide constructs such as an agrobacterium or abacterium.

“Expression vector” refers to a nucleic acid that can be introduced intoa host cell in order to express a particular polypeptide orpolynucleotide in that cell. As is known in the art, an expressionvector can be maintained permanently or transiently in a cell, whetheras part of the chromosomal or other DNA in the cell or in any cellularcompartment, such as a replicating vector in the cytoplasm. Anexpression vector also comprises a promoter that drives expression of anRNA, which typically is translated into a polypeptide in the cell orcell extract. For example, suitable promoters for inclusion in theexpression vectors of the invention include those that function ineukaryotic or prokaryotic host cells. Promoters can comprise regulatorysequences that allow for regulation of expression relative to the growthof the host cell or that cause the expression of a gene to be turned onor off in response to a chemical or physical stimulus. For E. coli andcertain other bacterial host cells, promoters derived from genes forbiosynthetic enzymes, antibiotic-resistance conferring enzymes, andphage proteins can be used and include, for example, the galactose,lactose (lac), maltose, tryptophan (trp), beta-lactamase (b/a),bacteriophage lambda PL, and T5 promoters. In addition, syntheticpromoters, such as the tac promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,433), can alsobe used. For E. coli expression vectors, it is useful to include an E.coli origin of replication, such as from pUC, p1P, p1I, and pBR. Forefficient translation of RNA into protein, the expression vector alsotypically contains a ribosome-binding site sequence positioned upstreamof the start codon of the coding sequence of the gene to be expressed.Other elements, such as enhancers, secretion signal sequences,transcription termination sequences, and one or more marker genes bywhich host cells containing the vector can be identified and/orselected, may also be present in an expression vector. Selectablemarkers, i.e., genes that confer antibiotic resistance or sensitivity,can be used and confer a selectable phenotype on transformed cells whenthe cells are grown in an appropriate selective medium.

“Transformation” refers to the process by which a vector is introducedinto a host cell. Transformation (or transduction, or transfection), canbe achieved by any one of a number of means including electroporation,microinjection, biolistics (or particle bombardment-mediated delivery),or agrobacterium mediated transformation.

The disclosure provides nucleic acid molecules in the form ofrecombinant DNA expression vectors or plasmids, as described in moredetail below, that encode one or more target enzymes. Generally, suchvectors can either replicate in the cytoplasm of the host microorganismor integrate into the chromosomal DNA of the host microorganism. Ineither case, the vector can be a stable vector (i.e., the vector remainspresent over many cell divisions, even if only with selective pressure)or a transient vector (i.e., the vector is gradually lost by hostmicroorganisms with increasing numbers of cell divisions). Thedisclosure provides DNA molecules in isolated (i.e., not pure, butexisting in a preparation in an abundance and/or concentration not foundin nature) and purified (i.e., substantially free of contaminatingmaterials or substantially free of materials with which thecorresponding DNA would be found in nature) forms.

The various components of an expression vector can vary widely,depending on the intended use of the vector and the host cell(s) inwhich the vector is intended to replicate or drive expression.Expression vector components suitable for the expression of genes andmaintenance of vectors in Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium glutamicum,yeast, Streptomyces, and other commonly used cells are widely known andcommercially available. For example, suitable promoters for inclusion inthe expression vectors of the disclosure include those that function ineukaryotic or prokaryotic host microorganisms. Promoters can compriseregulatory sequences that allow for regulation of expression relative tothe growth of the host microorganism or that cause the expression of agene to be turned on or off in response to a chemical or physicalstimulus. For E. coli and certain other bacterial host cells, promotersderived from genes for biosynthetic enzymes, antibiotic-resistanceconferring enzymes, and phage proteins can be used and include, forexample, the galactose, lactose (lac), maltose, tryptophan (trp),beta-lactamase (bla), bacteriophage lambda PL, and T5 promoters. Inaddition, synthetic promoters, such as the tac promoter (U.S. Pat. No.4,551,433), can also be used. For E. coli expression vectors, it isuseful to include an E. coli origin of replication, such as from pUC,p1P, p1, and pBR.

Thus, typical recombinant expression vectors useful with embodiments ofthe invention contain at least one expression system, that is, forexample, one comprised of at least a functional portion of GDH and/orother biosynthetic gene coding sequences operably linked to a promoterand optionally termination sequences that operate to effect expressionof the coding sequence in compatible host cells. The host cells aremodified by transformation with the recombinant DNA expression vectorsof the disclosure to contain the expression system sequences either asextrachromosomal elements or integrated into the chromosome.

A polynucleotide of the disclosure can be amplified using cDNA, mRNA oralternatively, genomic DNA, as a template and appropriateoligonucleotide primers according to standard PCR amplificationtechniques and those procedures described in the Examples section below.The nucleic acid so amplified can be cloned into an appropriate vectorand characterized by DNA sequence analysis. Furthermore,oligonucleotides corresponding to nucleotide sequences can be preparedby standard synthetic techniques, e.g., using an automated DNAsynthesizer.

It is also understood that an isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding apolypeptide homologous to the enzymes described herein can be created byintroducing one or more nucleotide substitutions, additions or deletionsinto the nucleotide sequence encoding the particular polypeptide, suchthat one or more amino acid substitutions, additions or deletions areintroduced into the encoded protein. Mutations can be introduced intothe polynucleotide by standard techniques, such as site-directedmutagenesis and PCR-mediated mutagenesis. In contrast to those positionswhere it may be desirable to make a non-conservative amino acidsubstitutions (see above), in some positions it is preferable to makeconservative amino acid substitutions. A “conservative amino acidsubstitution” is one in which the amino acid residue is replaced with anamino acid residue having a similar side chain. Families of amino acidresidues having similar side chains have been defined in the art. Thesefamilies include amino acids with basic side chains (e.g., lysine,arginine, histidine), acidic side chains (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamicacid), uncharged polar side chains (e.g., glycine, asparagine,glutamine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine), nonpolar side chains(e.g., alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine,methionine, tryptophan), beta-branched side chains (e.g., threonine,valine, isoleucine) and aromatic side chains (e.g., tyrosine,phenylalanine, tryptophan, histidine).

As previously discussed, general texts which describe molecularbiological techniques useful herein, including the use of vectors,promoters and many other relevant topics, include Berger and Kimmel,Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques, Methods in Enzymology Volume 152,(Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif.) (“Berger”); Sambrook et al.,Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual, 2d ed., Vol. 1-3, Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989 (“Sambrook”) andCurrent Protocols in Molecular Biology, F. M. Ausubel et al., eds.,Current Protocols, a joint venture between Greene Publishing Associates,Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (supplemented through 1999)(“Ausubel”). Examples of protocols sufficient to direct persons of skillthrough in vitro amplification methods, including the polymerase chainreaction (PCR), the ligase chain reaction (LCR), Q-replicaseamplification and other RNA polymerase mediated techniques (e.g.,NASBA), e.g., for the production of the homologous nucleic acids of thedisclosure are found in Berger, Sambrook, and Ausubel, as well as inMullis et al. (1987) U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202; Innis et al., eds. (1990)PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (Academic Press Inc.San Diego, Calif.) (“Innis”); Arnheim & Levinson (Oct. 1, 1990) C&EN36-47; The Journal Of NIH Research (1991) 3: 81-94; Kwoh et al. (1989)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 1173; Guatelli et al. (1990) Proc. Nat'l.Acad. Sci. USA 87: 1874; Lomeli et al. (1989) J. Clin. Chem. 35: 1826;Landegren et al. (1988) Science 241: 1077-1080; Van Brunt (1990)Biotechnology 8: 291-294; Wu and Wallace (1989) Gene 4:560; Barringer etal. (1990) Gene 89:117; and Sooknanan and Malek (1995) Biotechnology 13:563-564. Improved methods for cloning in vitro amplified nucleic acidsare described in Wallace et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,039. Improvedmethods for amplifying large nucleic acids by PCR are summarized inCheng et al. (1994) Nature 369: 684-685 and the references citedtherein, in which PCR amplicons of up to 40 kb are generated. One ofskill will appreciate that essentially any RNA can be converted into adouble stranded DNA suitable for restriction digestion, PCR expansionand sequencing using reverse transcriptase and a polymerase. See, e.g.,Ausubel, Sambrook and Berger, all supra.

All publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by referencein full for the purpose of describing and disclosing the methodologies,which are described in the publications, which might be used inconnection with the description herein. The publications discussed aboveand throughout the text are provided solely for their disclosure priorto the filing date of the disclosure. Nothing herein is to be construedas an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate suchdisclosure by virtue of prior disclosure.

TYPICAL EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

As discussed below, unique metabolic pathways in Escherichia coli havebeen constructed in order to expand the metabolic functions of thisorganism and, for example, allow its production of L-homoalanine as ametabolite (FIG. 1B). In the wild type metabolic network, glucose isconverted to threonine after “glycolysis” and “aspartate biosynthesis”(see, e.g. Debabov V G (2002) Adv Biochem Eng Biot 79:113-136). In thiswild type metabolism, threonine can then be converted to 2-ketobutyrateby threonine dehydratase TdcB or IlvA as a precursor for isoleucinebiosynthesis. As discussed in detail below, we describe methods andmaterials that can be used to divert metabolic pathways involving2-ketobutyrate in order to biosynthesize the nonnatural amino acidL-homoalanine.

In typical embodiments, the metabolically engineered microorganismsdisclosed herein comprise one or more biochemical pathways optimized forthe production of L-homoalanine. In various aspects, a recombinantmicroorganism provided herein includes the elevated expression of atleast one target enzyme as compared to a parental microorganism. Thetarget enzyme is encoded by, and expressed from, a nucleic acid sequencederived from a suitable biological source. In other embodiments, arecombinant microorganism provided herein includes the decreasedexpression of at least one target enzyme as compared to a parentalmicroorganism. In some aspects the nucleic acid sequence is a genederived from a bacterial or yeast source.

A microorganism strain that overly expresses one or more of the enzymesdisclosed herein can be obtained as follows. A DNA fragment(s) encodingthe one or more of the polypeptides discussed herein can be obtained bypolymerase chain reaction from its natural source(s) based on its codingsequence(s), which can be retrieved from GenBank. The DNA fragment(s) isthen operably linked to a suitable promoter to produce an expressioncassette. In one example, one expression cassette includes one codingsequence operably linked to a promoter. In another example, oneexpression cassette includes multiple coding sequences, all of which arein operative linkage with a promoter. In that case, it is preferred thata ribosomal binding site is incorporated 5′ to each of the codingsequences. If desired, the coding sequences are subjected to codonoptimization based on the optimal codon usage in the host microorganism.

The expression cassette(s) described above is then introduced into asuitable microorganism to produce the genetically modifiedmicroorganisms disclosed herein. Positive transformants are selected andthe over-expression of one or more of the enzymes mentioned above areconfirmed by methods known in the art, e.g., immune-blotting orenzymatic activity analysis. The modified microorganisms are thencultured in a suitable medium for L-homoalanine acid production.Preferably, the medium contains glucose for making L-homoalanine. Aftera sufficient culturing period, the medium is collected and theL-homoalanine is isolated.

The invention disclosed herein has a number of embodiments. Oneembodiment is a recombinant polypeptide that catalyzes a chemicalreaction wherein threonine is converted to 2-oxobutyrate; and typicallyfurther catalyzes a chemical reaction wherein this 2-oxobutyrate is thenconverted to L-homoalanine. Optionally this recombinant polypeptide isencoded in a DNA molecule which can be transformed and expressed in amicrobial host (e.g. one encoded by a DNA in an expression vector).Typically the recombinant polypeptide is used in a methodology designedto make an amino acid (e.g. L-homoalanine). A specific illustrativeembodiment of the invention is a recombinant microbial host comprisingtransformed DNA molecules encoding polypeptides that catalyze theconversion of threonine to 2-oxobutyrate; and further the conversion of2-oxobutyrate to L-homoalanine; so that the microbial host cell producesL-homoalanine.

Another embodiment of the invention is a composition of mattercomprising a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95%identity to SEQ ID NO: 1, and further comprising as amino acidsubstitution mutation at residue position K92 and/or T195 (for exampleK92V and T195S). In certain embodiments of the invention, the glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide further comprises at least 2-10 substitutions(for example K92L, K92V, T195S, T195A, V377A or S380C), and/or deletionor insertion (e.g. a polyhistidine tag) mutations as compared to thewild type glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 1.Optionally for example, the glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide includesat least one specific amino acid substitution mutation comprising K92L,K92V, T195S, T195A, V377A or S380C. A related embodiment of theinvention is an isolated glutamate dehydrogenase polynucleotide havingan at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 2 and encoding a glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide that comprises at least one mutation at aminoacid position K92, T195, V377 or S380; and further exhibits aspecificity for 2-ketobutyrate that is greater than its specificity for2-ketoglutarate (e.g. 2, 4, 8, 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50 fold greater). Inthe Examples below, the specificity constant k_(cat)/K_(m) of the GDH2mutant towards 2-ketobutyrate is shown to be 50-fold higher than thattowards the natural substrate 2-ketoglutarate. Compared to transaminaseIlvE and NADH-dependent valine dehydrogenases, the evolved glutamatedehydrogenase increased the conversion yield of 2-ketobutyrate toL-homoalanine by over 300% under aerobic conditions.

Embodiments of the invention include compositions comprising theglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide disclosed herein in combination withan organism such as Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicum. Intypical embodiments, the Escherichia coli or Corynebacterium glutamicumorganisms have been transformed with an expression vector encoding aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide disclosed herein. In certainembodiments of the invention, the organism is a strain of Escherichiacoli that produces relatively high levels of threonine, for example onethat can produce at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/L threonine from 30g/L glucose in a nutrient media.

Certain embodiments of the invention utilize a Corynebacterium such asCorynebacterium glutamicum. As is known in the art, Corynebacterium is agenus of Gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria that are aerobic orfacultatively anaerobic, chemoorganotrophs, catalase positive,non-spore-forming, and non-motile (Yassin A F, et al. “Corynebacteriumglaucum sp. nov.” Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 53 (Pt 3): 705-9. May2003). As with E. coli, culture conditions for growing Corynebacteriaare well known. Corynebacteria strains can require biotin to grow,albeit slowly even on enriched media. Some strains also need thiamineand PABA. (Collins, M. D., et al. “Genus Corynebacterium Lehmann andNeumann 1896, 350AL.” Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, vol.2, pp. 1266-1276. 1986). The bacteria are known to grow in Loeffler'smedia, blood agar, and trypticase soy agar (TSA). Non-pathogenic speciesof Corynebacterium are used for industrial applications, such as theproduction of amino acids, nucleotides, and other nutritional factors.In fact, one of the most studied and biotechnologically importantbacterial species is C. glutamicum, whose name refers to its capacity toproduce glutamic acid in aerobic conditions. (Abe, S., et al.“Taxonomical studies on glutamic acid-producing bacteria.” J. Gen. Appl.Microbiol. 13: 279-301. 1976). It is widely known for its role in theproduction of monosodium glutamate, which is used extensively in thefood industry. Today, C. glutamicum has been developed for theproduction of many biogene amino acids, nucleotides, and vitamins andprovides an annual production of more than two million tons of aminoacids, mainly L-glutamate and L-lysine. (Burkovski, Andreas.“Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology.” Caister AcademicPress, June 2008).

Culture conditions (e.g. nutrient medias) suitable for the growth andmaintenance of recombinant microorganisms are well known in the art(see, e.g. Handbook of Microbiological Media, Fourth Edition (2010),Ronald M. Atlas (Author); and Fermentation Microbiology andBiotechnology, Third Edition (2006) E. M. T. El-Mans (Editor), C. F. A.Bryce (Editor), Arnold L. Demain (Editor) and A. R. Allman (Editor)).The skilled artisan will recognize that such conditions can be modifiedto accommodate the requirements of each microorganism. Appropriateculture conditions useful in producing L-homoalanine comprise conditionsof culture medium pH, ionic strength, nutritive content, etc.;temperature; oxygen/CO₂/nitrogen content; humidity; and other cultureconditions that permit production of the compound by the hostmicroorganism, i.e., by the metabolic action of the microorganism.Appropriate culture conditions are well known for microorganisms thatcan serve as host cells.

In some embodiments of the invention the organism is selected to have amutation in one or more genes in a metabolic pathway in order tofacilitate L-homoalanine production, for example a strain of Escherichiacoli that comprises a mutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5,one resulting in a decreased threonine export activity as compared towild type SEQ ID NO: 5. In some embodiments of the invention theorganism is selected to overexpress one or more polypeptides in additionto the glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptides disclosed herein, forexample, one comprising an expression vector encoding a threoninedehydratase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 6or SEQ ID NO: 7. Optionally, the organism can synthesize L-homoalanineat a concentration of at least 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0,4.5, or 5.0 g/L in a nutrient media.

The instant disclosure allows artisans to generate a variety ofrecombinant polypeptides, for example a substantially purified GDHpolypeptide comprising SEQ ID NO:1 having at least mutations at one ormore of the following positions: K92, T195, V377 or S380, and aspecificity for 2-ketobutyrate that is greater than its specificity for2-ketoglutarate. The instant disclosure also provides a substantiallypurified GDH polypeptide having from 1-30, 1-20, 1-10 or 1-5conservative amino acid substitutions and a specificity for2-ketobutyrate that is greater than its specificity for 2-ketoglutarate.The instant disclosure similarly provides a substantially purifiedpolypeptide comprising a sequence that is at least 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%,95%, 98% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO: 1 and wherein the polypeptidecomprises a substituted amino acid residue position selected from thegroup consisting of a K92, T195, V377 or S380 as well as a specificityfor 2-ketobutyrate that is greater than its specificity for2-ketoglutarate.

Embodiments of the invention include methods for making L-homoalanine.One such embodiment of the invention is a method for makingL-homoalanine comprising: placing an Escherichia coli or Corynebacteriumglutamicum organism into a nutrient medium, wherein the organismcomprises a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least90-95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 1 and an amino acid substitution mutationat residue position K92 or T195. This organism is then cultured in anutrient medium under conditions that allows it to biosynthesizeL-homoalanine. Typically the glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide used insuch methods further comprises at least 2-10 substitution, deletion orinsertion mutations as compared to the wild type glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments of the invention,the organism is Escherichia coli comprising a mutation in a polypeptidehaving an at least 90-95% identity to a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5and is one that results in a decreased threonine export activity ascompared to wild type rhtA. Optionally the organism is transformed withan expression vector encoding a threonine dehydratase polypeptide havingan at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7.

In illustrative embodiments of the invention, the organism is grownunder at least one of the following conditions: at a temperature between30-40° C.; for a time period between at least 4 to at least 48 hours; ata pH between 6-8; and/or in a nutrient media comprising M9, LB, F1 or TBmedia. In one illustrative embodiment, the nutrient medium comprises M9medium; and the organism is a strain of Escherichia coli selected forits ability to make at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/L threonine from 30g/L glucose in the M9 medium. Typically in these methods, the organismcan make L-homoalanine at a concentration of at least 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5 or 5.0 g/L in a nutrient media.

Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method for aminating2-ketobutyrate so as to form L-homoalanine, the method comprisingcombining 2-ketobutyrate with a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptidehaving an at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 1, wherein: the glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide comprises at least two amino acid substitutionmutations at residue positions K92, T195, V777 or S380; and theglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide has a specificity for 2-ketobutyratethat is greater than its specificity for 2-ketoglutarate. In thesemethods, the 2-ketobutyrate is combined with the glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide under conditions which allow L-homoalanine to be formed.

Certain embodiments of the methods for making L-homoalanine includefurther steps to purify L-homoalanine. In describing compounds such asL-homoalanine, those of skill in the art understand that this languageis intended to encompass these compounds as well as the salts of thesecompounds (e.g. pharmaceutically acceptable salts known in the art). Forexample, as is known in the art, L-homoalanine can occur both a freeacid form as well as a L-homoalanine sodium, potassium or ammoniumsalts, and other salts derived from alkaline earth elements or othermetallic salts.

Some embodiments of the invention include at least one purification stepcomprising lysis of cells of an isolated organism used to makeL-homoalanine (e.g. those in a L-homoalanine fermentation broth).Embodiments can include at least one purification step comprisingcentrifugation of cells or cell lysates of an isolated organism used tomake L-homoalanine. Embodiments can include at least one purificationstep comprising precipitation of one or more compounds present in amedium used to make L-homoalanine (e.g. L-homoalanine itself).Embodiments can include at least one purification step comprising thefiltration and/or the concentration of one or more compounds present ina nutrient media (e.g. L-homoalanine). Embodiments can include at leastone purification step comprising a chromatographic separation of one ormore compounds present in a nutrient media (e.g. L-homoalanine).

Certain embodiments of the methods disclosed herein include furtherchemical or biochemical synthesis steps using a L-homoalaninecomposition made according to an embodiment of the invention. Inillustrative methods, L-homoalanine is chemically modified by, forexample, performing an chemical reaction such as an amidation or areduction reaction on this compound in order to generate furthercompounds such as S-2-aminobutyramide, S-2-aminobutanol, levetiracetam,brivaracetam or ethambutol (see, e.g. FIG. 1). In specific embodimentsof the invention, L-homoalanine is chemically manipulated in a processdesigned to make amino acid amides. Illustrative chemical synthesisprocesses that can be adapted for use with embodiments of the inventionare known and the art and disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos.4,696,943 and 7,531,673, the contents of which are incorporated hereinby reference. In illustrative embodiments of the invention, the processcan include reacting an amino acid, or acid salt of an amino acid, witha halogenating agent, or with a substance that reacts with carboxylicacids to form a leaving group, to form an intermediate, then reactingthe intermediate with ammonia. When the amino acid or acid salt isenantiomerically pure, the amide will be a stereoisomer. Amides made bysuch processes can be used, for example, to form levetiracetam.

Embodiments of the invention also include articles of manufacture and/orkits designed to facilitate the methods of the invention. Typically suchkits include instructions for using the elements therein according tothe methods of the present invention. Such kits can comprise a carriermeans being compartmentalized to receive in close confinement one ormore container means such as vials, tubes, and the like, each of thecontainer means comprising one of the separate elements to be used inthe method. One of the containers can comprise a vial, for example,containing an expression vector encoding a polypeptide disclosed herein,for example one encoding a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having analtered substrate specificity. Optionally the expression vector has beentransformed into an organism such as Escherichia coli or Corynebacteriumglutamicum in order to facilitate their production of L-homoalanine. Onesuch embodiment of the invention is a kit for synthesizingL-homoalanine, the kit comprising: an expression vector encoding aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity toSEQ ID NO: 1 and an amino acid substitution mutation at residue positionK92 or T195; as well as a container for this expression vector.Optionally the kit further comprises an expression vector encoding athreonine dehydratase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity to SEQID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO: 7 and/or a live Escherichia coli strain (e.g. astrain of Escherichia coli that overexpresses threonine and/or one thatcomprises a mutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5 resulting ina decreased threonine export activity as compared to wild type SEQ IDNO: 5).

In a typical embodiment of the invention, an article of manufacturecontaining materials useful for production of L-homoalanine is provided.The article of manufacture comprises a container and a label. Suitablecontainers include, for example, bottles, vials, syringes, and testtubes. The containers may be formed from a variety of materials such asglass or plastic. The container can hold a composition of matter whichcan be used to produce L-homoalanine (e.g. an organism transformed withan expression vector encoding a recombinant GDH polypeptide). The labelon, or associated with, the container indicates that the composition isused for making L-homoalanine. The article of manufacture may furthercomprise a second container comprising another composition or substratein addition to a GDH polynucleotide. This composition or substrate, forexample, might be used to increase the production of certainintermediaries in the production of L-homoalanine, such as threonine. Itmay further include other materials desirable from a commercial and userstandpoint, including other buffers, diluents, filters, needles,syringes, and package inserts with instructions for use. Furtherbiological aspects of the invention are discussed in the followingExamples.

EXAMPLES

The Examples below provide illustrative methods and materials that canbe used in the practice the various embodiments of the inventiondisclosed herein.

Example 1 Illustrative Methods and Materials for BiosynthesizingL-Homoalanine Directly from Glucose Expanding Metabolic Network forBiosynthesis of L-homoalanine.

There are two major challenges in this expanded biosynthetic pathway:the first challenge we face is to find the right amination enzyme toconvert 2-ketobutyrate into L-homoalanine and existing enzymes may notwork since L-homoalanine cannot be detected in normal cells (see, e.g.Epelbaum S, et al. (1998) J Bacteriol 180(16):4056-4067) even though2-ketobutyrate is a natural metabolite; the second is evolvingmetabolism to drive the carbon flux towards 2-ketobutyrate. In mostorganisms, 2-ketobutyrate is synthesized via threonine. Alternativeroutes include “the pyruvate pathway” starting with the condensation ofacetyl-CoA and pyruvate to form citramalate (see, e.g. Charon et al.(1974) J Bacteriol 117(1):203-211), “the glutamate pathway” viaβ-methylaspartate and β-methyloxaloacetate (see, e.g. Phillips et al.(1972) J Bacteriol 109(2):714-719), or “γ elimination” of activatedsubstrates such as O-phospho-homoserine and O-acetyl-homoserine (see,e.g. Donini S, et al. (2006) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 350(4):922-928).We choose “the threonine pathway” because there are existingtechnologies in the fermentation industry to develop bacteria strainsthat could produce more than 100 g/L threonine (see, e.g. Debabov V G(2002) Adv Biochem Eng Biot 79:113-136).

Limitation of Natural Enzymes on Amination of 2-ketobutyrate.

In order to check if any endogenous transaminase of E. coli can work on2-ketobutyrate, we fed 10 g/L 2-ketobutyrate to wildtype E. coli strainBW25113 growing in M9 medium. After 24 h, HPLC analysis showed that only182 mg/L L-homoalanine was produced (FIG. 2A). Since the branched-chainamino acid aminotransferase IlvE (see, e.g. Inoue K, et al. (1988) JBiochem 104(5):777-784) is likely to be a functional candidate, wecloned and overexpressed IlvE in BW25113, which increased the productionof L-homoalanine to 1.2 g/L (FIG. 2B). Additional feeding of 10 g/Lamino donor glutamate further increased the L-homoalanine titer to 3.2g/L. These experiments demonstrated that transaminases such as IlvEcould aminate 2-ketobutyrate into L-homoalanine. However, highconcentration of glutamate is needed to drive the reaction equilibriumbecause transamination is a reversible reaction process. Even under suchextreme conditions, the conversion rate of transaminating 2-ketobutyrateto L-homoalanine is only 32%.

Direct reductive amination of ketoacids with ammonia is a preferablechoice to produce amino acid because it avoids the usage of glutamate asthe amino donor (see, e.g. Zhang et al. (2007) Appl Microbiol Biotechnol77(2):355-366). Compared to transamination, reductive amination couldpotentially simplify the metabolic manipulation and reduce theproduction cost. It has been shown previously that valine dehydrogenasesfrom various Streptomyces species are active on reductive amination of2-ketobutyrate in vitro (see, e.g. Priestley et al. (1989) Biochem J261(3):853-861; Turnbull et al. (1997) J Biol Chem 272(40):25105-25111).We thus cloned and overexpressed in BW25113 the valine dehydrogenasesfrom Streptomyces Streptomyces coelicolor, and Streptomyces fradiae.Unfortunately, these dehydrogenases only slightly increased theL-homoalanine titer (around 240˜260 mg/L, FIG. 2C-E) as compared to theBW25113 background (182 mg/L). The possible reason is that valinedehydrogenase is a catabolic enzyme that favors the reaction directiontowards degradation of L-homoalanine instead of biosynthesis in aerobiccondition.

Evolving Glutamate Dehydrogenase to Aminate 2-ketobutyrate.

Glutamate is formed by reductive amination of 2-ketoglutarate withammonia. The reaction is catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) orglutamate synthase in the presence of cofactor NADPH (FIG. 3A). Thisammonia utilization process is very efficient since glutamate is theuniversal nitrogen source of other amino acids. The catalytic activityof GDH towards biosynthesis of glutamate is more than 10 times higherthan that towards degradation of glutamate (see, e.g. Sharkey et al.(2009) Proteins 77(2):266-278), which makes GDH an ideal biosyntheticenzyme for amino acid production. However, since native GDH is activeonly on 2-ketoglutarate, we need to engineer GDH to obtain new substratespecificity towards 2-ketobutyrate for L-homoalanine biosynthesis.

To this end, we have developed a selection strategy to evolve GDH.Deletion of transaminase genes avtA and ilvE from the chromosome makeswild-type E. coli valine auxotrophic (see, e.g. Wang et al. (1987) JBacteriol 169(9):4228-4234), whose growth in minimal medium can berescued by a mutant GDH active on aminating the valine precursor2-ketoisovalerate (FIG. 3B). Since the chemical structures of2-ketobutyrate and 2-ketoisovalerate are similar, we reasoned that GDHvariants active on 2-ketoisovalerate could be active on 2-ketobutyrate(FIG. 3C).

Based on the crystal structure of Clostridium symbiosum glutamatedehydrogenase (PDB: 1BGV) (see, e.g. Stillman et al. (1993) J Mol Biol234(4):1131-1139), residues K89, T193, V377, and S380 are within aradius of 6 Å of the γ-carbon of glutamate substrate (FIG. 4A). Sequencealignment of GDH between C. symbiosum and E. coli shows that the bindingpocket is conserved, and the corresponding residues of E. coli GDH areK92, T195, V377, and S380 (FIG. 4B). These sites were subjected tosite-saturation mutagenesis by PCR gene assembly using primerscontaining degenerate NNK (N¼ A, T, G, C; K¼ G, T) codons. The assembledfragments were ligated into plasmid pZE12 (see, e.g. Lutz et al. (1997)Nucleic Acids Res 25(6):1203-1210) and the resulting library wastransformed into the valine auxotrophic E. coli (ΔavtA, ΔilvE). Thelibrary contained 2 million independent clones and the selection wasperformed in M9 minimal medium. Two mutants were isolated: GDH1 hasK92L, T195A, V377A, and S380C mutations; GDH2 has K92V and T195Smutations.

Characterization of the Evolved Glutamate Dehydrogenase Mutants.

As can be seen in FIG. 4C, while E. coli (ΔavtA, ΔilvE) without plasmidcould not grow in the absence of valine in minimal medium, GDH mutantscould support cell growth without valine addition. In particular, thegrowth speed of GDH2 transformant in minimal medium was very close tothat in valine-supplemented medium, which means that GDH2 successfullyrescued the valine auxotrophic phenotype. The evolved GDH mutants weretransformed and overexpressed in BW25113. Feeding of 10 g/L2-ketobutyrate into such transformants produced 1.6 g/L (GDH1) and 5.1g/L (GDH2) L-homoalanine (FIG. 2F, G). Interestingly, the productionyield is in agreement with the growth speed of these two GDH mutants inminimal medium. These results suggest that our selection strategy workswell and the selected GDH2 is more active on both 2-ketoisovalerate and2-ketobutyrate than GDH1. GDH2 transformant has a conversion yield of50% and a productivity of 5.1 WI/day, much better than the IlvEtransformant plus high concentration of glutamate.

To characterize the enzymes, both the wild-type glutamate dehydrogenaseGDHwt and mutant GDH2 were added an N-terminal 6×His-tag, overexpressed,and purified through Ni-NTA columns. The kinetic parameters foractivation of 2-ketoglutarate (cognate substrate) and 2-ketoisovalerateor 2-ketobutyrate (nonnatural substrates) were determined by monitoringthe consumption of NADPH at 340 nm (FIG. 6). The enzymatic assayindicates that towards 2-ketoglutarate the specificity constantk_(cat)/K_(m) of GDH2 is nearly 3,000-fold smaller than that of GDHwt.While the two enzymes have a similar K_(m) towards 2-ketoisovalerate,GDH2 has a five times higher k_(cat) than GDHwt and can produce valinefor cell growth in physiological condition. Compared to GDHwt, GDH2 hasa significant enhanced catalytic activity on 2-ketobutyrate with a4-fold decrease in K_(m) (8.4 mM vs. 35.4 mM) and a 2-fold increase ink_(cat) (90.2 s-1 vs. 47.2 s-1). The increase in binding affinity isvery helpful since high concentration of 2-ketobutyrate interferes withcellular metabolic activities (see, e.g. Daniel et al. (1983) Mol GenGenet 190(3):452-458). On the basis of the crystallographic model forthe active site of GDH, amino group of K92 hydrogenbonds to theγ-carboxyl group of 2-ketoglutarate and determines the substratespecificity (see, e.g. Stillman et al. (1993) J Mol Biol234(4):1131-1139). Mutation of lysine to valine increases thehydrophobic character of the binding pocket, which explains why thespecificity constant k_(cat)/K_(m) of GDH2 towards 2-ketobutyrate is50-fold higher than that towards the natural substrate 2-ketoglutarate.

Optimizing the Full Biosynthetic Pathway of L-homoalanine.

Through directed evolution, we obtained a mutant glutamate dehydrogenaseGDH2 that is highly active on amination of 2-ketobutyrate. When weoverexpressed GDH2 in BW25113, 0.1 g/L L-homoalanine was produced from30 g/L glucose (column #2 in FIG. 5A). Without overexpression of GDH2,no homoalanine was detected (column #1 in FIG. 5A). Now the remainingchallenge is to engineer metabolism to divert the carbon flux towards2-ketobutyrate.

Since 2-ketobutyrate is derived from threonine, we switched theproduction host from wild-type E. coli BW25113 to a threonineoverproducer ATCC98082 (see, e.g. Debabov V G (2002) Adv Biochem EngBiot 79:113-136). E. coli strain ATCC98082 can produce 8 g/L threoninefrom 30 g/L glucose. Overexpression of GDH2 and threonine dehydrataseTdcB in ATCC98082 resulted in production of 0.18 g/L L-homoalanine(column #3 in FIG. 5A) and 3.7 g/L threonine. The high concentration ofremaining threonine means that the catabolic enzyme TdcB is not activeenough to fully convert threonine into 2-ketobutyrate. Anotherconsequence is the accumulation of 4 g/L glutamate because lowconcentration of 2-ketobutyrate cannot compete with 2-ketoglutarate foramination by GDH2. We then cloned the biosynthetic threoninedehydratases IlvA from E. coli (IlvAEC) and Bacillus subtilis (see, e.g.Shulman A, et al. (2008) Biochemistry 47(45):11783-11792) (IlvABS). Incombination with GDH2, these dehydratases significantly increased theproduction of L-homoalanine (column #4 and 5 in FIG. 5A). IlvABS was thebest enzyme identified and its transformant produced 3.8 g/LL-homoalanine. However, there was still 2.5 g/L threonine remained inthe fermentation medium. It is known that ATCC98082 has an rhtA23mutation which enhances about 10-fold the expression of the rhtA gene(see, e.g. Debabov V G (2002) Adv Biochem Eng Biot 79:113-136), whoseprotein product is a strong threonine exporter. We reasoned that theactive efflux of threonine might account for the extracellularaccumulation of threonine. After deletion of rhtA from the ATCC98082chromosome, threonine no longer accumulated and the concentration ofL-homoalanine increased to 5.4 g/L (column #6 in FIG. 5A). This finalstrain has a productivity of 2.7 g/L/day and a yield of 0.18 g/g glucose(FIG. 5B), which is 26% of the theoretical maximum (the calculationdetail is described later herein). Interestingly, even though GDH usedsignificant amounts of cellular reducing power, improving NADPHavailability by phosphoglucose isomerase (pgi) knockout (see, e.g.Chemler et al. (2009) Metab Eng 10.1016/j.ymben.2009.07.003) decreasedthe L-homoalanine production titer to 3.0 g/L, which indicated thatthreonine biosynthesis was affected by the intracellular redox status.

This work expanded the E. coli metabolism to biosynthesize a nonnaturalamino acid L-homoalanine directly from glucose. The success heredemonstrates that metabolic manipulation not only allows the productionof natural metabolites, but also enables the microbial synthesis ofnonnatural metabolites. While traditional metabolic engineering dealswith flux engineering, to achieve industry-level biosynthesis of uniquechemicals, three steps (pathway expansion, protein evolution, and fluxenhancing) should be taken. Protein evolution is a key step since uniqueenzymes need to be developed to perform nonnatural activities. Here wehave evolved the glutamate dehydrogenase to fix ammonia directly onto2-ketobutyrate, which avoids the usage of glutamate as nitrogen donorand significantly improves the yield of L-homoalanine.

Developing a fermentation process for L-homoalanine (5.4 g/L titer and0.18 g/g glucose yield in shake flasks) provides a renewable supply ofthis chiral chemical and enables the synthesis of levetiracetam withoutexpensive chiral chromatography. The greener manufacturing process oflevetiracetam could potentially reduce the drug cost (see, e.g. U.S.Pat. No. 4,696,943; U.S. Pat. No. 6,107,492), which may help 50 millionepilepsy patients worldwide considering 90% of these people are indeveloping countries and do not receive the appropriate treatment (see,e.g. Scott et al. (2001) B World Health Organ 79:344-351).

Example 2 Illustrative Materials and Methods Useful to Make and UseEmbodiments of the Invention Vector Construction.

All cloning procedures were carried out in the E. coli strain XL10-gold(Stratagene). PCR reactions were performed with KOD polymerase(Novagen). Oligos were synthesized by Operon Biotechnologies (sequencedetails described later herein). A gene fragment encoding lac repressorLad (see, e.g. Zhang et al. (2008) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA105(52):20653-20658) was inserted into the SacI site of plasmid pZE12(see, e.g. Lutz et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res 25(6):1203-1210) toyield plasmid pZElac. The ilvE gene was amplified from the genomic DNAof E. coli K12 using the primers IlvEaccfwd and IlvExbarev. The valinedehyrogenase genes were amplified from the genomic DNA of Streptomycesavermitilis, Streptomyces coelicolor, and Streptomyces fradiae using theprimer pairs VDHsaaccfwd/VDHsaxbarev, VDHscaccfwd/VDHscxbarev, andVDHsfaccfwd/VDHsfxbarev. The glutamate dehydrogenase gene gdhA wasamplified from the genomic DNA of E. coli K12 using the primersGDHecaccfwd and GDHecxbarev. All the PCR products were digested withAcc65I and XbaI and ligated into pZElac to yield plasmids pZElac_IlvE,pZElac_VDHsa, pZElac_VDHsc, pZElac_VDHsf and pZElac_GDH. The E. colithreonine dehydratase genes tdcB and ilvA were amplified from thegenomic DNA of E. coli K12 using the primer pairs TdcBaccfwd/TdcBsalrevand IlvAecaccfwd/IlvAecsalrev. The Bacillus threonine dehydratase geneilvA were amplified from the genomic DNA of Bacillus subtilis using theprimer pair IlvAbsaccfwd/IlvAbssalrev. These fragments were digestedwith Acc65I and SalI. Then they were ligated with mutant GDH genefragment digested with SalI and XbaI (amplified with primer pairGDHecsalfwd/GDHecxabrev). The ligated fragments were inserted intopZElac to create plasmids pZElac_tdcB_GDH, pZElac_ilvAEC_GDH andpZElac_ilvABS_GDH.

Knocking out Chromosomal Genes.

Gene deletion was performed using P1 transduction and the strains usedfor the P1 transduction were obtained from the Keio collection (see,e.g. Baba T, et al. (2006) Mol Syst Biol 2:1-11 (2006.0008)). Coloniescontaining the correct deletions were transformed with plasmid pCP20 toremove the kanamycin resistance marker. Valine transaminase genes avtAand ilvE were deleted from the E. coli strain BW25113 chromosome to makea valine auxotroph designated as ValK. The threonine exporter gene rhtAwas inactivated from the chromosome of threonine-hyperproduction E. colistrain ATCC98082 to improve the production of L-homolalanine.

Construction and Selection of GDH Library.

Oligonucleotides encoding degenerate NNK (N is A,T,G,C; K is G,T) codonsat the sites corresponding to Lys-92, Thr-195, Val377, and Ser380 in E.coli GdhA were used for library construction. Four separate PCRs wereperformed by using pZElac_GDH as the template and the following pairs ofprimers: GDHecaccfwd and GDH_k92lib_rev, GDH_k92lib and GDH_T195lib_rev,GDH_T195lib and GDH_VSlib_rev, GDH_VSlib and GDHecxabrev. The DNAfragments obtained from these PCRs were electrophoresed and purified byusing Zymo-spin columns (Zymo Research). Equimolar quantities of thefragments were mixed and subjected to 10 rounds of PCR. The primersGDHecaccfwd and GDHecxabrev were subsequently added, and the reactionmixture was subjected to 25 more rounds of PCR. The resulting 1.4-kb PCRproduct was digested Acc65I and XbaI and ligated into PZElac digestedwith the same enzymes. The ligation mixture was transformed intoelectrocompetent ElectroMAX DH10B cells (Invitrogen), yielding 2 millionindependent transformants. The plasmid DNA from the pooled transformantswas isolated and used to transform into valine auxotroph ValK throughelectroporation, yielding 10 million independent clones.

Pooled transformants (500 μL, ˜109 cells) were incubated in 30 mL of M9medium containing 20 g/L glucose and 50 mg/L ampicillin with shaking at37° C. for 2 d. 50 μL of culture was subcultured into two new culturetubes (100× dilution). After another five rounds of successivesubculturing the enrichment (to ensure the best mutant dominated in theculture), two mutants were isolated: GDH1 has K92L, T195A, V377A andS380C mutations; and GDH2 has K92V and T195S mutations.

Protein Purification and Enzymatic Assay.

Both gene fragments encoding wildtype glutamate dehydrogenase and GDH2were amplified using primers GDHbamfwd and GDHbamrev. After digestionwith BamHI, the gene fragments were inserted into expression plasmidpQE9 (Qiagen). The resulting expression plasmids were transformed intoE. coli strain BL21(DE3) harboring pREP4 (Qiagen). Cells were inoculatedfrom an overnight preculture at 1/100 dilution and grown in 200 mL 2XYTrich medium containing 50 mg/L ampicillin and 25 mg/L kanamycin. At anOD₆₀₀ of 0.6, recombinant proteins were expressed by induction of thecell cultures with 0.1 mM IPTG, followed by incubation at 30° C.overnight. Overexpressed proteins were then purified withNi-nitrilotriacetic acid columns. Protein concentration was determinedby measuring UV absorbance at 280 nm.

Enzymatic assay was performed in assay buffer (100 mM Tris buffer, pH8.0) containing 0.2M NH4Cl, 0.2 mM NADPH, and various concentrations of2-ketoacids. The reactions were started by adding the purified enzymes,and the consumption of NADPH was monitored at 340 nm (extinctioncoefficient, 6.22 mM⁻¹ cm⁻¹). Kinetic parameters (k_(cat) and K_(m))were determined by fitting initial velocity data to the Michaelis-Mentenequation using Origin.

Production of L-homoalanine.

To test the conversion of 2-ketobutyrate to L-homoalanine, plasmidspZElac_IlvE, pZElac_VDHsa, pZElac_VDHsc, pZElac_VDHsf, pZElac_GDH andpZElac_GDH2 were transformed into BW25113. The transformants wereinoculated in M9 medium with 5 g/L yeast extract, 10 g/L ammoniumhydrochloride and 20 g/L glucose. Once OD reached ˜1.0, 10 g/L2-ketobutyrate plus 0.1 mM IPTG were added and incubated at 37° C. for24 h. Amino acids were quantified as o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA)derivatives by HPLC analysis.

To test the production of L-homoalanine from glucose, E. coli strainATCC98082 harboring plasmid pZS_thrO (see, e.g. Zhang et al. (2008) ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 105(52):20653-20658) was transformed withpZElac_tdcB_GDH, pZElac_ilvAEC_GDH and pZElac_ilvABS_GDH. Thesetransformants were subjected to fermentation using the followingproduction medium: 30 g glucose, 17 g (NH₄)₂SO₄, 2 g KH₂PO₄, 1 gMgSO₄.7H₂O, 2 g yeast extract, 0.1 g L-valine, 0.01 g FeSO₄:7 H₂O and0.01 g MnSO₄:7 H₂O per liter. Antibiotics were added appropriately(ampicillin 50 mg/L, spectinomycin 25 mg/L). Overnight 2XYT culture werediluted 25× into fermentation medium and 0.1 mMisopropyl-b-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) was added to induce proteinexpression. In shake flask experiments, the culture medium was bufferedby addition of 30 g/L CaCO₃. Cultures were incubated in 33° C. shaker(250 rpm) for 40-50 h until glucose was consumed.

Theoretical Yield Calculations.

To calculate the theoretical yield of homoalanine from glucose, linearprogramming optimization using MATLAB software was used. We firstestablish a set of mass balance equations describing all the relevantintracellular metabolites in terms of input and output flues. The inputglucose flux is set to 1, so that the yield of isobutanol is equal tothe isobutanol flux (ν_(iBOH)) divided by 1. To calculate the maximaltheoretical yield, we carry out the following minimization:

min(−ν_(iBOH)) such that AV=B

Here A is the stoichiometric matrix (FIG. 10), V is the vector of fluxin each reaction included, and B is the vector consists of negativeglucose input and zeros (FIG. 11). The rows of A and B correspond toeach metabolite, and the columns of A correspond to each reaction (orlumped reaction) considered (defined in FIG. 12).

To carry out this linear optimization problem, we used a MATLAB module“linprog”, which uses the following formalism

$\min\limits_{x}{f^{T}x}$

such mar A_(eq)x=b_(eq)To fit this formalism the f vector is defined in FIG. 12

After minimization, V10 is the maximum theoretical yield of isobutanoland the rest of the V (or x) vector is the flux distribution over themetabolic network.

In this calculation, there are two degrees of freedom: 1) whether NADHcan be converted to NADPH by transhydrogenase, and 2) the P/O ratio(number of ATP obtained by oxidizing NAD(P)H). FIG. 13 shows the resultsof the maximum theoretical yield for various combination of these twovariations. It is assumed that: 1) energy production from UQH2 derivedfrom succinate dehydrogenase in TCA cycle was not included; and 2)non-oxidative branch of Pentose Phosphate Pathway was assumed3R5P→2F6P+GA3P.

Example 3 Illustrative Methods for Making and Purifying L-HomoalanineL-Homoalanine Fermentation.

The expression vector, pZElac_ilvABS_GDH2, was transformed into E. coliATCC98082 with rhtA knock-out. The resulting strain was used for theproduction test in 5 L fermentor. For the L-homoalanine productionexperiment in 5 L fermentor, a loop of fresh transformant cells wereinoculated into 100 ml LB (in 500 ml flask) containing 100 μg/LAmpicillin. This seed culture was incubated at 34° C., 250 rpm inInnova4000 incubator (New Brunswick Scientific, Edison, N.J.). Afterovernight growth, this seed culture was used as inoculums for the mainfermentation. Fermentor (Bioflo 310, New Brunswick Scientific, Edison,N.J.) was prepared with the production medium contained (per liter):glucose (40 g), (NH₄)₂SO₄ (15 g), KH₂PO₄ (2 g), MgSO₄7H₂O (1 g), YeastExtract (2 g), L-Valine (0.1 g), FeSO₄7H₂O (0.01 g), and MnSO₄7H₂O (0.01g). The pH was adjusted and controlled to 6.8 with 7% NH₄OH. Thefermentor was controlled at 34° C., 700 rpm and 1 vvm aeration with air.IPTG was added initially to have a final concentration of 0.1 mM.Ampicillin (100 μg/L) was also added to make sure plasmid stability.Feed medium containing 76 g of glucose and 1 g of KH₂PO₄ in 200 ml wasprepared for feeding after initial glucose (40 g/L) was consumed. Afterall 80 g/L of glucose consumed, fermentation was stopped.

FIG. 14 shows the result of fermentation using 5 L fermentor. The finaltiter of L-homoalanine in fermentation broth was 12.2 g/L from 80 g/Lglucose consumption. Production yield was 15.25%.

L-Homoalanine Purification.

For the efficient purification of L-homoalanine from fermentation broth,we designed two different purification processes, direct crystallizationand chromatographic purification, as shown in FIG. 15. To test thepurification process for L-homoalanine, fermentation broth, which had 12g/L of final L-homoalanine, was used. E. coli cells were removed byeither centrifugation (4000 rpm, 10 min) or membrane filtration. Thiswas used as mother liquid for the purification process. For directcrystallization process, the mother liquid (400 ml) was firstconcentrated to have at least 100 g/L concentration using rotaryevaporator (50° C., 100 rpm). The resulting volume, 20 ml (20 foldconcentrate), was heated to 70° C. For the crystallization, 50 ml ofcool methanol (20° C.) was added to this concentrated broth continuouslyusing pump with 5 ml/min flow rate. White crystal was collected bycentrifugation (4000 rpm, 10 min). Crystal can be washed with coolmethanol. Purified crystal was dried in oven at 80° C. for 5 hours. Inthis way, we could purify more than 80% (81%, 3.88 g/4.80 g) ofL-homoalanine from fermentation broth.

For the chromatographic purification, concentrated mother liquidprepared as described above was acidified with 5N H₂SO₄ to have pH lowerthan 2.0. Chromatographic column was prepared in 20 cm long glass column(ID 2 cm) packed with Amberlite strongly acidic cation exchanger sodiumform resin (Sigma). Before applying concentrated mother liquid intocolumn, the cation-exchange column (50 ml bed volume) waspre-equilibrated with 2-3 bed volumes of acidic water (pH<4). Theacidified mother liquid was applied to pre-equilibrated column. To eluteL-homoalanine, 3N NH₄OH was applied to the column. Every bed volume (50ml) was collected to analyze best scheme for collection. Elutescollected at 2nd˜3rd bed volume was found to have more than 95% ofL-homoalanine applied. The collected liquid was re-acidified with 5N HClto have pH lower than 2.0. If the concentration at this stage is lowerthan 100 g/L, more concentration is needed for the optimumcrystallization efficiency. The rest of crystallization, washing (ifneeded) and drying steps are same as described above. In thischromatographic purification process, we could purify more than 70%(73%, 3.50 g/4.80 g) of L-homoalanine from fermentation broth.

Tables:

TABLE 1 Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH) polypeptideLOCUS: AAA87979 447 aa linear BCT 10-FEB-2004DEFINITION: glutamate dehydrogenase [Escherichia coli].ACCESSION: AAA87979 CAA25495 VERSION: AAA87979.1 GI: 146124DBSOURCE: locus ECOGDHA accession J01615.1 SOURCE: Escherichia coliORGANISM: Escherichia coliMDQTYSLESFLNHVQKRDPNQTEFAQAVREVMTTLWPFLEQNPKYRQMSLLERLVEPERVIQFRVVWVDDRNQIQVNRAWRVQFSSAIGPYKGGMRFHPSVNLSILKFLGFEQTFKNALTTLPMGGGKGGSDFDPKGKSEGEVMRFCQALMTELYRHLGADTDVPAGDIGVGGREVGFMAGMMKKLSNNTACVFTGKGLSFGGSLIRPEATGYGLVYFTEAMLKRHGMGFEGMRVSVSGSGNVAQYAIEKAMEFGARVITASDSSGTVVDESGFTKEKLARLIEIKASRDGRVADYAKEFGLVYLEGQQPWSLPVDIALPCATQNELDVDAAHQLIANGVKAVAEGANMPTTIEATELFQQAGVLFAPGKAANAGGVATSGLEMAQNAARLGWKAEKVDARLHHIMLDIHHACVEHGGEGEQTNYVQGANIAGFVKVADAMLAQGVI (SEQ ID NO: 1)

TABLE 2 Glutamate Dehydrogenase (GDH) polynucleotideLOCUS ECOGDHA 1779 bp DNA linear BCT 10-FEB-2004DEFINITION Escherichia coli glutamate dehydrogenase(gdhA) gene, complete cds. ACCESSION J01615 K00565 M23171 X00988VERSION J01615.1 GI: 146123 SOURCE Escherichia coliCCGGGTGGCAAAACTTTAGCGTCTGAGGTTATCGCATTTGGTTATGAGATTACTCTCGTTATTAATTTGCTTTCCTGGGTCATTTTTTTCTTGCTTACCGTCACATTCTTGATGGTATAGTCGAAAACTGCAAAAGCACATGACATAAACAACATAAGCACAATCGTATTAATATATAAGGGTTTTATATCTATGGATCAGACATATTCTCTGGAGTCATTCCTCAACCATGTCCAAAAGCGCGACCCGAATCAAACCGAGTTCGCGCAAGCCGTTCGTGAAGTAATGACCACACTCTGGCCTTTTCTTGAACAAAATCCAAAATATCGCCAGATGTCATTACTGGAGCGTCTGGTTGAACCGGAGCGCGTGATCCAGTTTCGCGTGGTATGGGTTGATGATCGCAACCAGATACAGGTCAACCGTGCATGGCGTGTGCAGTTCAGCTCTGCCATCGGCCCGTACAAAGGCGGTATGCGCTTCCATCCGTCAGTTAACCTTTCCATTCTCAAATTCCTCGGCTTTGAACAAACCTTCAAAAATGCCCTGACTACTCTGCCGATGGGCGGTGGTAAAGGCGGCAGCGATTTCGATCCGAAAGGAAAAAGCGAAGGTGAAGTGATGCGTTTTTGCCAGGCGCTGATGACTGAACTGTATCGCCACCTGGGCGCGGATACCGACGTTCCGGCAGGTGATATCGGGGTTGGTGGTCGTGAAGTCGGCTTTATGGCGGGGATGATGAAAAAGCTCTCCAACAATACCGCCTGCGTCTTCACCGGTAAGGGCCTTTCATTTGGCGGCAGTCTTATTCGCCCGGAAGCTACCGGCTACGGTCTGGTTTATTTCACAGAAGCAATGCTAAAACGCCACGGTATGGGTTTTGAAGGGATGCGCGTTTCCGTTTCTGGCTCCGGCAACGTCGCCCAGTACGCTATCGAAAAAGCGATGGAATTTGGTGCTCGTGTGATCACTGCGTCAGACTCCAGCGGCACTGTAGTTGATGAAAGCGGATTCACGAAAGAGAAACTGGCACGTCTTATCGAAATCAAAGCCAGCCGCGATGGTCGAGTGGCAGATTACGCCAAAGAATTTGGTCTGGTCTATCTCGAAGGCCAACAGCCGTGGTCTCTACCGGTTGATATCGCCCTGCCTTGCGCCACCCAGAATGAACTGGATGTTGACGCCGCGCATCAGCTTATCGCTAATGGCGTTAAAGCCGTCGCCGAAGGGGCAAATATGCCGACCACCATCGAAGCGACTGAACTGTTCCAGCAGGCAGGCGTACTATTTGCACCGGGTAAAGCGGCTAATGCTGGTGGCGTCGCTACATCGGGCCTGGAAATGGCACAAAACGCTGCGCGCCTGGGCTGGAAAGCCGAGAAAGTTGACGCACGTTTGCATCACATCATGCTGGATATCCACCATGCCTGTGTTGAGCATGGTGGTGAAGGTGAGCAAACCAACTACGTGCAGGGCGCGAACATTGCCGGTTTTGTGAAGGTTGCCGATGCGATGCTGGCGCAGGGTGTGATTTAAGTTGTAAATGCCTGATGGCGCTACGCTTATCAGGCCTACAAATGGGCACAATTCATTGCAGTTACGCTCTAATGTAGGCCGGGCAAGCGCAGCGCCCCCGGCAAAATTTCAGGCGTTTATGAGTATTTAACGGATGATGCTCCCCACGGAACATTTCTTATGGGCCAACGGCATTTCTTACTGTAGTGCTCCCAAAACTGCTTGTCGTAACGATAACACGCTTCAAGTTCAGCATCCGTTA AC (SEQ ID NO: 2)

TABLE 3 Mutant Glutamate Dehydrogenase-1 (GDH1) (SEQ ID NO: 3)MDQTYSLESFLNHVQKRDPNQTEFAQAVREVMTTLWPFLEQNPKYRQMSLL

ILKFLGFEQTFKNALTTLPMGGGKGGSDFDPKGKSEGEVMRFCQALMTELYR

PEATGYGLVYFTEAMLKRHGMGFEGMRVSVSGSGNVAQYAIEKAMEFGARVITASDSSGTVVDESGFTKEKLARLIEIKASRDGRVADYAKEFGLVYLEGQQPWSLPVDIALPCATQNELDVDAAHQLIANGVKAVAEGANMPTTIEATELFQQAGV

EHGGEGEQTNYVQGANIAGFVKVADAMLAQGVI

TABLE 4 Mutant Glutamate Dehydrogenase-2 (GDH2) (SEQ ID NO: 4)MDQTYSLESFLNHVQKRDPNQTEFAQAVREVMTTLWPFLEQNPKYRQMSLL

ILKFLGFEQTFKNALTTLPMGGGKGGSDFDPKGKSEGEVMRFCQALMTELYR

PEATGYGLVYFTEAMLKRHGMGFEGMRVSVSGSGNVAQYAIEKAMEFGARVITASDSSGTVVDESGFTKEKLARLIEIKASRDGRVADYAKEFGLVYLEGQQPWSLPVDIALPCATQNELDVDAAHQLIANGVKAVAEGANMPTTIEATELFQQAGVLFAPGKAANAGGVATSGLEMAQNAARLGWKAEKVDARLHHIMLDIHHACVEHGGEGEQTNYVQGANIAGFVKVADAMLAQGVI 

TABLE 5 Inner Membrane Transporter rhtA PolypeptideLOCUS: YP_003498628 295 aa linear BCT 19-MAR-2010DEFINITION: Inner membrane transporter rhtA[Escherichia coli O55:H7 str.CB9615]. ACCESSION: YP_003498628VERSION: YP_003498628.1 GI: 291281810 DBLINK Project: 46655DBSOURCE REFSEQ: accession NC_013941.1SOURCE: Escherichia coli O55:H7 str. CB9615ORGANISM: Escherichia coli O55:H7 str. CB9615MPGSLRKMPVWLPIVILLVAMASIQGGASLAKSLFPLVGAPGVTALRLALGTLILIAFFKPWRLRFAKEQRLPLLFYGVSLGGMNYLFYLSIQTVPLGIAVALEFTGPLAVALFSSRRPVDFVWVVLAVLGLWFLLPLGQDVSHVDLTGCALALGAGACWAIYILSGQRAGAEHGPATVAIGSLIAALIFVPIGALQAGEALWHWSVIPLGLAVAILSTALPYSLEMIALTRLPTRTFGTLMSMEPALAAVSGMIFLGETLTPIQLLALGAIIAASMGSTLTVRKESKIKELDIN (SEQ ID NO: 5)

TABLE 6 Threonine Dehydratase Polypeptide[Escherichia coli]LOCUS: ACI77715 329 aa linear BCT 08-JUN-2009DEFINITION: threonine dehydratase [Escherichia coli].ACCESSION: ACI77715 VERSION: ACI77715.1 GI: 209758806DBSOURCE: accession EU895154.1 SOURCE: Escherichia coliORGANISM: Escherichia coliMHITYDLPVAIDDIIEAKQRLAGRIYKTGMPRSNYFSERCKGEIFLKFENMQRTGSFKIRGAFNKLSSLTDAEKRKGVVACSAGNHAQGVSLSCAMLGIDGKVVMPKGAPKSKVAATCDYSAEVVLHGDNFNDTIAKVSEIVEMEGRIFIPPYDDPKVIAGQGTIGLEIMEDLYDVDNVIVPIGGGGLIAGIAVAIKSINPTIRVIGVQSENVHGMAASFHSGEITTHRTTGTLADGCDVSRPGNLTYEIVRELVDDIVLVSEDEIRNSMIALIQRNKVVTEGAGALACAALLSGKFDQYIQNRKTVSIISGGNIDLSRVSQITGFVDA (SEQ ID NO: 6)

TABLE 7 Threonine Dehydratase polypeptide [Bacillus subtilis]LOCUS: AAA96639 422 aa linear BCT 14-DEC-2001DEFINITION: threonine dehydratase [Bacillussubtilis subsp. subtilis str. 168]. ACCESSION: AAA96639VERSION: AAA96639.1 GI: 1256645DBSOURCE: locus BACYACA accession L77246.1SOURCE: Bacillus subtilis subsp. subtilis str. 168ORGANISM: Bacillus subtilis subsp. subtilis str. 168MKPLLKENSLIQVKDILKAHQNVKDVVIHTPLQRNDRLSERYECNIYLKREDLQVVRSFKLRGAYHKMKQLSSEQTENGVVCASAGNHAQGVAFSCKHLGIHGKIFMPSTTPRQKVSQVELFGKGFIDIILTGDTFDDAYKSAAECCEAESRTFIHPFDDPDVMAGQGTLAVEILNDIDTEPHFLFASVGGGGLLSGVGTYLKNVSPDTKVIAVEPAGAASYFESNKAGHVVTLDKIDKFVDGAAVIKKIGEETFRTLETVVDDILLVPEGKVCTSILELYNECAVVAEPAGALSVAALDLYKDQIKGKNVVCVVSGGNNDIGRNIQEMKERSLIFEGLQHYFIVNFPQRAGALREFLDEVLGPNDDITRFEYTKKNNKSNGPALVGIELQNKADYGPLIERMNKKPFHYVEVNKDEDLFHLLI (SEQ ID NO: 7)

1. A composition of matter comprising a glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide having an at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 1, and furthercomprising an amino acid substitution mutation at residue position K92or T195.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide further comprises at least 2-10 substitution,deletion or insertion mutations as compared to the wild type glutamatedehydrogenase polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 3. The composition of claim2, wherein the polypeptide includes an amino acid substitution mutationcomprising K92L, K92V, T195A, V377A or S380C.
 4. The composition ofclaim 1, further comprising Escherichia coli or Corynebacteriumglutamicum.
 5. The composition of claim 4, wherein the Escherichia colior Corynebacterium glutamicum comprises an expression vector encodingthe glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide of claim
 1. 6. The compositionof claim 5, wherein in a nutrient media, the Escherichia coli canproduce at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/L threonine from 30 g/Lglucose.
 7. The composition of claim 5, wherein the Escherichia colifurther comprises a mutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5resulting in a decreased threonine export activity as compared to wildtype SEQ ID NO:
 5. 8. The composition of claim 5, further comprising anexpression vector encoding a threonine dehydratase polypeptide having anat least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO:
 7. 9. Thecomposition of claim 4, wherein the Escherichia coli can synthesizeL-homoalanine at a concentration of at least 0.5 g/L in a nutrientmedia.
 10. A glutamate dehydrogenase polynucleotide having an at least95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 2 and encoding a glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide comprising: at least one mutation at amino acid positionK92, T195, V377 or S380; and a specificity for 2-ketobutyrate that isgreater than its specificity for 2-ketoglutarate.
 11. A method formaking L-homoalanine comprising: disposing a Escherichia coli orCorynebacterium glutamicum organism into a nutrient medium, wherein theorganism comprises a glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an atleast 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 1; and comprising an amino acidsubstitution mutation at residue position K92 or T195; and cultivatingthe microorganism in the nutrient medium so that L-homoalanine is made.12. The method of claim 11, wherein the glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide further comprises at least 2-10 substitution, deletion orinsertion mutations as compared to the wild type glutamate dehydrogenasepolypeptide of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein theorganism is Escherichia coli comprising a mutation in a rhtA polypeptideof SEQ ID NO: 5 that results in a decreased threonine export activity ascompared to wild type SEQ ID NO:
 5. 14. The method of claim 11, whereinthe organism is transformed with an expression vector encoding athreonine dehydratase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity to SEQID NO: 6 or SEQ ID NO:
 7. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein theorganism is grown under at least one of the following conditions: (a) ata temperature between 30-40° C.; (b) for a time period between at least4 to at least 48 hours; (c) at a pH between 6-8; or (d) in a nutrientmedia comprising M9, LB, F1 or TB media.
 16. The method of claim 15,wherein: the nutrient media comprises a M9 media; and the organism isEscherichia coli which makes at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 g/Lthreonine from 30 g/L glucose in the M9 medium.
 17. The method of claim11, wherein the organism can make L-homoalanine at a concentration of atleast 0.5 g/L in a nutrient media.
 18. The method of claim 11, furthercomprising purifying the L-homoalanine made by the method by at leastone purification step comprising: (a) lysis of cells of the organism;(b) centrifugation; (c) filtration; (d) concentration; (e)crystallization; or (d) chromatography.
 19. A kit for synthesizingL-homoalanine, the kit comprising: a) an expression vector encoding aglutamate dehydrogenase polypeptide having an at least 95% identity toSEQ ID NO: 1 and wherein the glutamate dehydrogenase polypeptidecomprises an amino acid substitution mutation at residue position K92 orT195; and b) a container for (a)
 20. The kit of claim 19 furthercomprising an expression vector encoding a threonine dehydratasepolypeptide having an at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO: 6 or SEQ IDNO: 7 and/or Escherichia coli, wherein the Escherichia coli comprises amutation in a rhtA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO: 5 resulting in a decreasedthreonine export activity as compared to wild type SEQ ID NO: 5.